For a week this July, international attention was on a sudden escalation of violence in the Emerald Triangle, a large area bordering Thailand and Cambodia. Both sides conducted artillery and aerial strikes on each other’s territory, and over 300,000 individuals were evacuated. Just as quickly as clashes had erupted along the border, and a full-blown conflict seemed inevitable, an unconditional ceasefire was announced, ending all hostilities. Today, tensions remain elevated and the peace can be described as precarious and fragile at best. But as the dust appears to have settled for now, it is time to take stock of the recent history leading to these events, establish a timeline of relevant incidents since 24 July 2025, and examine some plausible implications and future risks.
Background
The current tensions have their origins in colonial-era French Indochina, and the borders that were agreed in tandem with Siam in 1904. Following France’s withdrawal from the region and Cambodia’s independence in 1953, violence in the Emerald Triangle has occasionally flared up due to competing claims over territorial demarcation. The International Court of Justice (ICJ) ruled in favour of Cambodia in 1962, and reaffirmed its decision in 2013, but ambiguities have persisted and fueled repeated flare-ups.
In July 2008, violence broke out when roughly 50 Thai soldiers took up positions in the area closely surrounding Preah Vihear temple. Earlier that year Cambodia had filed for the temple to be included as a UNESCO World Heritage site. While the Thai side under Prime Minister Sundaravej initially signed a communique supporting the decision, severe backlash and domestic opposition from the People’s Alliance for Democracy made Bangkok reverse course.
Rising tensions were reported through the spring, with both sides accusing each other of provocations. A fatal skirmish near Chang Bok (green below) in late May reportedly left two Cambodian soldiers dead and spurred military posturing on both sides. Border crossings closed and populations evacuated.
Pregame
03 June to 23 June 23, 2025: Thai sources reported Cambodian troop movement and heavy artillery mobilisation across the Emerald Triangle, including into Preah Vihear and Oddar Meanchey provinces.
A phone call between former Prime Minister and current President of the Cambodian Senate Hun Sen and his Thai counterpart, Prime Minister Paetongtarn, leaked during this period, which ultimately led to her removal from office by the country’s Constitutional Court over “ethical violations”.
On 23 July 2025, a member of a Thai patrol in the Chong An Ma area (marked in red), in Ubon Ratchathani Province, stepped on a landmine and was seriously injured, losing his right leg. Four others were lightly injured. The Cambodian side denied what it called ‘baseless accusations’.
The Thai army in response announced the closure of four border crossings: Chong An Ma, Chong Sa Ngam, Chong Chom, and Chong Sai Taku, marked in yellow, as well as access to the Ta Muen Thom and Ta Kwai temples, marked in blue. The same day, acting Prime Minister Wechayachai announced the downgrading of bilateral ties by recalling its ambassador from Phnom Penh and expelling the Cambodian ambassador. Phnom Penh responds by recalling all its diplomatic staff from Thailand, leaving behind only a second charge d’affairs.
Day I, July 24, 2025 (Thursday):
Royal Thai Command posted a statement on Facebook, reporting that a Cambodian drone was sighted, flying in the disputed area near Ta Muen Thom temple. Six armed Cambodian soldiers were observed near Thai positions. A firefight erupted, with both sides blaming each other for the initial shots.
During the morning, the Cambodian side circulated reports concerning clashes breaking out near Ta Moan Thom Temple, Ta Krabey Temple, and the Mom Tei area in Preah Vihear and Oddar Meanchey provinces. Cambodian sources also reported that the Preah Vihear Temple suffered damage after Thai shells reportedly landed around the temple area.
Around 09:30 AM, Thai officials reported that Cambodia fired BM-21 rocket artillery from the Khao Laem area, landing in civilian areas of Ban Khuen Lek, Ban Kruat District, Buriram Province (orange below), causing non-lethal injuries.
Fighting quickly expanded along the border. One of the first viral instances of clashes occurred when Cambodian artillery struck a petrol station, attached to a seven-eleven convenience store on the Thai side in Kantharalak district, Sisaket province on July 24, 2025, around 10:30 a.m. Images of the aftermath were widely shared on social media, with claims that video imagery depicted a Thai strike on a Cambodian military facility. This has since been debunked, showing in fact a Cambodian BM-21 rockets hitting the gas station in Ban Phue.
Cambodian usage of the Russian-made BM-21 Multiple-Launch Rocket System (MLRS) was widely reported as evidenced through video imagery.
Attacks by the Royal Cambodian Army were reported with alleged supporting video imagery on the Phanom Dong Rak Hospital (marked in green below) in the Thai province of Chik Daek Province, roughly 15 kilometres from the border. The hospital is said to have been hit with artillery shells, shattering windows and collapsing a part of the roof.
Around 11:30AM Thailand launched an F-16 strike on a military base in Chong Arn Ma, with several other jets on standby. Later in the afternoon, around 16:40 PM, reports surfaced of Thai bombardments of a Cambodian command post south of the Ta Muen Thom temple (marked in yellow).
Cambodian media sources claimed that a Thai fighter was shot down, a claim which was disputed by the Thai side.
Videos of several destroyed homes circulated on social media, reportedly showing the results of Cambodian artillery and rocket fire against civilian homes in Ban Phon Thong village, So Phisai District, northeastern Thailand. The accuracy of these claims, in light of the supposed distance between the evidenced target area and the actual border, could not be confirmed.
Cambodian news sources claimed that two Thai soldiers were injured, while the Cambodian side allegedly sustained no casualties. The same source reported that Cambodian troops had taken control of Ta Moan Thom and Ta Krabey temples.
Death toll: International media reported at least 12 dead on the first day of fighting in total. Dr. Varoth Chotpitayasunondh, spokesman for the Thai Ministry of Public Health provided a more detailed account. He reported 13 civilian and one military deaths, 32 injured civilians and 14 military injuries.
One civilian was reportedly killed on the Cambodian side. Cambodian news sources noted that around 17:30 PM, Thai F-16 jets had launched airstrikes on Wat Ta Moan Sen Chey in Banteay Ampil district, Oddar Meanchey Province (red below), where a 70-year old monk was reportedly killed. Five others were injured during the strike.
Displacement: On Day I, Cambodian media reported that thousands of families in Oddar Meanchay province had been evacuated. Images show people in makeshift refugee centres and temporary shelters. Provincial spokesman Met Measpheakdey referenced 1,500 families had been evacuated from areas close to the border on the evening of July 24, 2025. International media reported that over 40,000 Thai were evacuated. By the end of the day, the Ministry of Public Health in Thailand increased this figure to 112,643 civilians, almost half coming from Surin province.
Day II, July 25, 2025 (Friday):
Early in the morning, the Cambodian side reported being attacked in 7 locations along the Cambodian-Thai border around the areas of Phnom Khak, Tathav (blue below), Phnom 333, Prasat Ta Moan (yellow), Prasat Takrabey (orange), Choam Te, and Mom 3. The Cambodian spokesperson also accused the Thai military of using cluster munitions on two occasions, claiming Bangkok violated international agreements. Attacks were also reported in Samrong town.
The Thai army released footage of Thai drones dropping bombs on what it claims to be Cambodian military positions. Cambodian advances during the early morning in Chong Bok in the Nam Yuen District, were reportedly pushed back by Thai artillery and mortar fire.
The deputy governor and spokesman for Oddar Meanchey province announced the deaths one of civilian and the injury of five others, likely corresponding to statements. The Chanthaburi and Trat Border Defense Command declared martial law in eight districts along the border on 25 July 2025.
The Special Operations Division of the Champasak Provincial Military of the Lao PDR reported that during clashes between the first and second day, 10 artillery shells had hit Laotian territory. Some damage but no casualties were reported. The authorities in Vientiane had not pointed to a culprit, but the matter remains under investigation. The foreign ministry had released a statement, expressing its grave concerns over the ongoing situation and called on both sides to exercise restraint. Meanwhile, Cambodian defense ministry spokesperson Lieutenant General Mary Socheata denied Thai claims of Cambodian responsibility.
Diplomatic Moves: Calls for third-party mediation fell on deaf ears as the Spokesperson of the Thai Ministry of Foreign Affairs maintained that conflict resolution was a bilateral affair. Conflicting accounts were heard at the United Nations in New York with both sides accusing each other of starting hostilities. The Cambodian side called for an immediate ceasefire.
Death toll: On Day II the total death toll increased to 32. Cambodia reported twelve dead (seven civilians and five soldiers). The Cambodian Defense spokesperson noted that at least 50 Cambodian civilians and more than 20 soldiers have also been injured. The Thai side reported 13 civilian and six military deaths. An additional 29 Thai soldiers and 30 civilians have also been wounded.
Displacement: Human Rights Watch reported around 20:00 PM that over 100,000 Thai were internally displaced. Thai language sources noted a figure close to 130,000 A news channel of the United Nations reported over 131,000 Thai and 4,000 displaced Cambodians. The Provincial spokesman for Oddar Meanchay noted that 2,400 families had been successfully evacuated.
Day III, July 26, 2025 (Saturday):
On Saturday, fighting expanded to other areas of the border. During the early hours of 26 July, around 05:02 AM, the Cambodian Ministry of National Defense condemned what it called ‘unprovoked and premeditated aggression’ when the Thai army shot five artillery shells in Ekphap Village, Thmor Da Commune, Veal Veng district, Pursat province (red below).
Thai sources reported that during clashes in Phu Makheua and Chong Ta Thao Thai (both yellow below) forces had successfully pushed back an Cambodian assault with an attempted Cambodian counteroffensive which reportedly cost the lives of several soldiers, including Major General Doung Somneang, Commander of Division 7.
News sources reported that fighting had expanded to the southernmost region of the border. Following an alleged Cambodian offensive, the Thai Royal Navy launched operation Trat Pikhat Pairee 1, to drive back Cambodian forces who were said to have encroached along the border at three points. The counter-offensive was said to have been concluded successfully after an ‘intense 30-minute engagement’.
The Nation Thailand reported that the Royal Thai Air Force successfully carried out two aerial operations in the morning and later in the day. The first leg of the operation involved striking Cambodian artillery positions in Phu Ma Kua and near Ta Muen Thom Temple. Later in the day, two F-16s and two Gripen fighter jets from Swedish manufacturer Saab carried out a second round of operations, targeting Cambodian military positions at Ta Kwai Temple in Surin Province.
On 26 July 2025, Cambodia’s Civil Aviation Authority had issued a ban on flights along the border despite a statement the day prior by Secretary of State and Spokesperson of the Secretariat of Civil Aviation Sin Chansereyvutha noting that routes between Bangkok and Phnom Penh and Bangkok and Siem Reap were operating as normal.
Diplomatic Moves: U.S. President Trump called both leaders, urging immediate ceasefire and linking future trade talks to an end of hostilities. The Cambodian side also called for an immediate ceasefire.
Death toll: Bangkok reported 19 dead of which 13 civilians. One soldier was later also reported dead, bringing the total on the Thai side to 20. Cambodia’s defence ministry reported 13 dead, of which five Cambodian soldiers and eight civilians in Oddar Meanchey province. 21 military and 50 civilian injuries were also reported, in line with the previous day.
Displacement: International media reported close to 170,000 displacements. The Thai side reported close to 140,000 evacuees. Parinya Phothisat, Governor of Sa Kayo Province, issued an urgent evacuation order for residents of Ta Phraya District and Non Mak Mun Subdistrict totalling 4,076 people.The Thai 2nd Army Operations Centre provided a detailed provincial account as of noon that day: 6,238 people from Buriram Province, 32,843 in Surin Province, 34,248 from Sisaket Province and 14,709 from Ubon Ratchatani, totalling 88,038 across four provinces (green below). Chanin Rungthanakiat, Secretary to the Minister of Interior, revealed that over 520,000 people had been affected in border provinces, nearly 300,000 being residents of Surin province.
National Defense Spokesperson Mali Sujeata, announced the displacement of 35,729 civilians, most of which occurred in the provinces of Oddar Meanchey and Preah Vihear. Evacuation orders were also completed for Pursat and Banteay Meanchey (all four marked in blue below). Cambodian Information Minister Neth Pheaktra referenced a similar figure, of 37,635 people.
Day IV, July 27, 2025 (Sunday)
The Cambodian Ministry of National Defense reported multiple Thai attacks, starting in the middle of the night at 02:30 am, lasting all the way to 06:30. Bombardments were reported in Ta Thai Phnom 333, Phnom Khmouch, Tamone Thom, and Ta Krabey (last three marked in blue below). Thai ground troops and tanks also reportedly attacked An Ses, Veal Intry (both yellow below) and Phnom Khmouch. No casualties were reported.
Around 04:30 the sound of gunfire and explosions was reported in Prasat Ta Kwai, Surin Province. Cambodian BM-21 artillery shells were said to have caused damage to homes, with no reports of injuries or deaths.
Around 06:30 AM, four Cambodian rockets were reportedly launched from the area near Samrong airport, killing five livestock animals and damaging two Thai homes. Then, around noon, the Cambodian Khmer Times reported Thai attacks on civilian targets in Samrong Sangkat, Satara, Samrong City and Banteay Ampil District (marked blue below). In Response, The Royal Thai Air Force dispatched four F-16 fighters to support ground operations on the Thai side of the border in Prasat Ta Mueang Thom (purple) and Prasat Ta Kwai (orange). Five Thai drones were reportedly launched into Cambodian territory, in Koh Yor in Koh Kong Province (green), and Phanom Dong Rak in Surin Province.
On the same day, Nation Group, one of Thailand’s large media companies, confirmed that it had been the target of continuous Cambodian information operations since the start of the war. It noted mass-reporting of its social media content and DDoS campaigns, which includes creation of a large number of fake accounts, posting false claims, and using botnets to boost visibility and credibility of coordinated reporting efforts.
Diplomatic Moves: Malaysia proposed international mediation and convened talks. ASEAN’s credibility as a regional mediator was put to the test, with both Thailand and Cambodia initially rejecting outside mediation to display domestic strength, but ultimately agreeing to negotiations under pressure.
Displacement: By Day IV, the total number of displaced had increased to nearly 300,000. Treechada Sritada, the political spokesperson for the Thai Ministry of Public Health, announced that refugee shelters in six provinces, including Sisaket, Ubon Ratchathani, Surin, Trat, Sa Kayo and Buriram were housing 138,152 displaced civilians. Cambodian National Defense Spokesperson Lieutenant General Mary Socheata announced that over 80,000 individuals had been either evacuated or injured in Preah Vihear, Oddar Meanchey, and Pursat. Moreover, disruption at 536 schools in 14 districts is said to have left 130,000 students without education. The next day, the number of Cambodian displaced was increased to more than 130,000 with the final figure later amended to 168,946. A more detailed provincial account was also provided. The Khmer Times, later mentioned figures in excess of 180,000 in Preah Vihear, Oddar Meanchey, Banteay Meanchey, Pursat, and Siem Reap provinces.
Death toll: According to information from the Thai Ministry of Public Health, 13 civilians were killed. This figure was later amended to 15 confirmed civilian fatalities. 11 were seriously injured, 12 were moderately injured, and 13 were slightly injured, totalling 49. The Thai military confirmed 15 deaths on its side. The Thai government’s Public Relations Department also released information concerning the injury of 103 military personnel. Open-source information for Cambodian casualties suggest that no updated figure was made public.
Day V, July 28, 2025: Ceasefire and Violations
By day five, following urgent talks in Kuala Lumpur, both sides agreed to an unconditional ceasefire set for midnight local time. Senior officials from both sides (as well as U.S. and Chinese representatives) attended the negotiations. Malaysia, the ASEAN chair, hosted the final session.
Despite the ceasefire, mutual accusations of violations persisted, with sporadic border incidents reported, including gun and mortar fire, drone usage and tank movements. Thailand handed back some Cambodian prisoners, though as many as 20 Cambodian soldiers reportedly remained detained illegally after the ceasefire took effect. During a press conference on 02 September 2025, Cambodian Defense Spokesperson Maly Socheata, noted that this matter still remains unresolved.
Day 0, August 07, 2025: A New Beginning
On 07 August 2025, both sides took the first step towards peace, by agreeing to 13 key points that aim for (permanent) de-escalation and cessation of hostilities. The meeting of the Cambodia-Thailand General Border Committee led to agreements in multiple areas, such as cessation of use of weapons, refraining from increasing troop count along the border, compliance with the Geneva Conventions and frequent dialogue and ongoing communications.
Ongoing Tensions and Outlook
In the short term, both sides have an interest to commit to dialogue to de-escalate the simmering border dispute. Considering that both Phnom Penh and Bangkok have signalled and actioned their intent to escalate their grievances to the international stage, this appears likely. At the least, what will play or should play a role is the clean-up of unexploded ordnance along the border, arguably a flashpoint that triggered the events of late July in the first place. As of 25 August 2025, these efforts remained unresolved and were ongoing.
An interesting development which emerged during this brief conflict was the consolidation of war in cyberspace, alongside kinetic engagements. A report from Cyberdefensewire highlights a coordinated cyber offensive from both sides, targeting the digital infrastructure of government, military, financial and media actors. Cybersecurity surveillance platform, Personar, revealed that Thailand suffered attacks on 438 of its systems by 59 different hacker groups, while Cambodia’s systems were targeted by 20 groups, exceeding 500 attacks. Thai government spokesperson Jirayu Huangsap released information pertaining to over 500 million DDoS attacks in a 24-hour timeframe.
Today, the ceasefire remains fragile, with militaries on both sides of the border remaining on high alert. A likely worst-case scenario for the next six months may include a sudden resurgence in violence to settle scores on a local level. Even in the best case, the coming months and years may see a border region defined by elevated vigilance, high levels of distrust, and sporadic heat-ups in the long term.